Friday, 15 November 2019
Thursday, 14 November 2019
Electrochemistry & Electrocatalysis
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Tuesday, 5 November 2019
Dry ice
Dry Ice is
the solid form of carbon dioxide. It is used primarily as a cooling agent. Its
advantages include lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any
residue (other than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere). It is
useful for preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable.
Dry ice
sublimates at 194.65 K (−78.5 °C; −109.3 °F), at Earth atmospheric pressures.
This extreme cold makes the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to
burns caused by freezing (frostbite). While generally not very toxic, the
outgassing from it can cause hypercapnia (abnormally elevated carbon dioxide
levels in the blood) due to buildup in confined locations.
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Ethylene glycol
Ethylene glycol (IUPAC name:
ethane-1,2-diol) is an organic compound with the formula (CH2OH)2. It is mainly
used for two purposes, as a raw material in the manufacture of polyester fibers
and for antifreeze formulations. It is an odorless, colorless, sweet-tasting,
viscous liquid. Ethylene glycol is toxic. Household pets are especially
susceptible to ethylene glycol poisoning from vehicle antifreeze leaks.
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Monday, 4 November 2019
Basalt
Basalt is a mafic extrusive
igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of magnesium-rich and iron-rich lava
exposed at or very near the surface of a terrestrial planet or a moon. More
than 90% of all volcanic rock on Earth is basalt. Basalt lava has a low
viscosity, due to its low silica content, resulting in rapid lava flows that
can spread over great areas before cooling and solidification. Flood basalt
describes the formation in a series of lava basalt flows.
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Magma
Magma (from Ancient Greek (mágma) meaning "thick unguent") is the molten or semi-molten natural
material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the
surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on
other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock,
magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles. Magma is produced by
melting of the mantle and/or the crust at various tectonic settings, including
subduction zones, continental rift zones,mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Mantle
and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be
stored in magma chambers or trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones. During their
storage in the crust, magma compositions may be modified by fractional
crystallization, contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing.
Following their ascent through the crust, magmas may feed a volcano or solidify
underground to form an intrusion (e.g., an igneous dike or a sill). While the
study of magma has historically relied on observing magma in the form of lava
flows, magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal
drilling projects—twice in Iceland (see Magma usage for energy production), and
once in Hawaii.
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Saturday, 2 November 2019
Paper engineering
Paper engineering is a branch of
engineering that deals with the usage of physical science (e.g. chemistry and
physics) and life sciences (e.g. biology and biochemistry) in conjunction with
mathematics as applied to the converting of raw materials into useful paper
products and co-products. The field applies various principles in process
engineering and unit operations to the manufacture of paper, chemicals, energy
and related materials. The following timeline shows some of the key steps in
the development of the science of chemical and bioprocess engineering:
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Gasification
Gasification is a process that
converts organic- or fossil fuel-based carbonaceous materials into carbon
monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide. This is achieved by reacting the
material at high temperatures (>700 °C), without combustion, with a
controlled amount of oxygen and/or steam. The resulting gas mixture is called
syngas (from synthesis gas) or producer gas and is itself a fuel. The power
derived from gasification and combustion of the resultant gas is considered to
be a source of renewable energy if the gasified compounds were obtained from
biomass.
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Friday, 1 November 2019
Iodine
Iodine is a chemical element with
the symbol I and atomic number 53. The heaviest of the stable halogens, it
exists as a lustrous, purple-black non-metallic solid at standard conditions
that melts to form a deep violet liquid at 114 degrees Celsius, and boils to a
violet gas at 184 degrees Celsius. The element was discovered by the French
chemist Bernard Courtois in 1811. It was named two years later by Joseph Louis
Gay-Lussac from this property, after the Greek ἰώδης
"violet-coloured".
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Reagent
A reagent is a substance or
compound added to a system to cause a chemical reaction, or added to test if a
reaction occurs. The terms reactant and reagent are often used
interchangeably—however, a reactant is more specifically a substance consumed
in the course of a chemical reaction. Solvents, though involved in the reaction,
are usually not called reactants. Similarly, catalysts are not consumed by the
reaction, so they are not reactants. In biochemistry, especially in connection
with enzyme-catalyzed reactions, the reactants are commonly called substrates.
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Thursday, 31 October 2019
Vanadium(V) phosphates
A common vanadium phosphate is
VOPO4.2H2O. Seven polymorphs are known for anhydrous VOPO4, denoted αI, αII, β,
γ, δ, ω, and ε. These materials are composed of the vanadyl group (VO) and
phosphate (PO43−). They are yellow, diamagnetic solids, although when
contaminated with vanadium(IV) derivatives, samples exhibit EPR signals and
have bluish cast. For these materials, vanadyl refers to both vanadium(V) oxo
and vanadium(IV) oxo centers, although conventionally vanadyl is reserved for
derivatives of VO2+.
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Zeolite
Zeolites are microporous,
aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial adsorbents and
catalysts.[1] The term zeolite was originally coined in 1756 by Swedish
mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who observed that rapidly heating the
material, believed to have been stilbite, produced large amounts of steam from
water that had been adsorbed by the material. Based on this, he called the
material zeolite, from the Greek ζέω (zéō), meaning "to boil" and λίθος
(líthos), meaning "stone". The classic reference for the field has
been Breck's book Zeolite Molecular Sieves: Structure, Chemistry, And Use.
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Wednesday, 30 October 2019
Acrylonitrile
Acrylonitrile is an organic
compound with the formula CH2CHCN. It is a colorless volatile liquid, although
commercial samples can be yellow due to impurities. In terms of its molecular
structure, it consists of a vinyl group linked to a nitrile. It is an important
monomer for the manufacture of useful plastics such as polyacrylonitrile. It is
reactive and toxic at low doses. Acrylonitrile was first synthesized by the
French chemist Charles Moureu (1863–1929) in 1893.
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Carboxylic acid
A carboxylic acid is an organic compound that contains a
carboxyl group (C(=O)OH).[1] The general formula of a carboxylic acid is
R–COOH, with R referring to the rest of the molecule. Carboxylic acids occur
widely. Important examples include the amino acids and acetic acid. Deprotonation
of a carboxyl group gives a carboxylate anion.
Carboxylic acids are commonly
identified by their trivial names. They often have the suffix -ic acid.
IUPAC-recommended names also exist; in this system, carboxylic acids have an
-oic acid suffix. For example, butyric acid (C3H7CO2H) is butanoic acid by
IUPAC guidelines. For nomenclature of complex molecules containing a carboxylic
acid, the carboxyl can be considered position one of the parent chain even if
there are other substituents, such as 3-chloropropanoic acid. Alternately, it
can be named as a "carboxy" or "carboxylic acid"
substituent on another parent structure, such as 2-carboxyfuran.
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Tuesday, 29 October 2019
Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of the
interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation (via electron
spectroscopy, atomic spectroscopy, etc). Historically, spectroscopy originated
through the study of visible light dispersed according to its wavelength, by a
prism. Later the concept was expanded greatly to include any interaction with
radiative energy as a function of its wavelength or frequency, predominantly in
the electromagnetic spectrum, though matter waves and acoustic waves can also
be considered forms of radiative energy; recently, with tremendous difficulty,
even gravitational waves have been associated with a spectral signature in the
context of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) and
laser interferometry. Spectroscopic data are often represented by an emission
spectrum, a plot of the response of interest, as a function of wavelength or
frequency.
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Chemical kinetics
Chemical kinetics, also known as
reaction kinetics, is the branch of physical chemistry that is concerned with
understanding the rates of chemical reactions. It is to be contrasted with
thermodynamics, which deals with the direction in which a process occurs but in
itself tells nothing about its rate. Chemical kinetics includes investigations
of how different experimental conditions can influence the speed of a chemical
reaction and yield information about the reaction's mechanism and transition
states, as well as the construction of mathematical models that also can
describe the characteristics of a chemical reaction.
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Friday, 25 October 2019
Silicon dioxide
Silicon
dioxide, also known as silica, is an oxide of silicon with the chemical formula
SiO2, most commonly found in nature as quartz and in various living organisms.
In many parts of the world, silica is the major constituent of sand. Silica is
one of the most complex and most abundant families of materials, existing as a
compound of several minerals and as synthetic product. Notable examples include
fused quartz, fumed silica, silica gel, and aerogels. It is used in structural
materials, microelectronics (as an electrical insulator), and as components in
the food and pharmaceutical industries.
Inhaling
finely divided crystalline silica is toxic and can lead to severe inflammation
of the lung tissue, silicosis, bronchitis, lung cancer, and systemic autoimmune
diseases, such as lupus and rheumatoid arthritis. Inhalation of amorphous
silicon dioxide, in high doses, leads to non-permanent short-term inflammation,
where all effects heal.
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Thermodynamic equilibrium
Thermodynamic equilibrium is an
axiomatic concept of thermodynamics. It is an internal state of a single
thermodynamic system, or a relation between several thermodynamic systems
connected by more or less permeable or impermeable walls. In thermodynamic
equilibrium there are no net macroscopic flows of matter or of energy, either
within a system or between systems.
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Wednesday, 23 October 2019
Caesium
Caesium (IUPAC spelling) (also
spelled cesium in American English) is a chemical element with the symbol Cs
and atomic number 55. It is a soft, silvery-golden alkali metal with a melting
point of 28.5 °C (83.3 °F), which makes it one of only five elemental metals
that are liquid at or near room temperature. Caesium has physical and chemical
properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium. The most reactive of all
metals, it is pyrophoric and reacts with water even at −116 °C (−177 °F). It is
the least electronegative element, with a value of 0.79 on the Pauling scale.
It has only one stable isotope, caesium-133. Caesium is mined mostly from
pollucite, while the radioisotopes, especially caesium-137, a fission product,
are extracted from waste produced by nuclear reactors.
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Nerve agent
Nerve agents, sometimes also
called nerve gases, are a class of organic chemicals that disrupt the
mechanisms by which nerves transfer messages to organs. The disruption is
caused by the blocking of acetylcholinesterase, an enzyme that catalyzes the
breakdown of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter.
Poisoning by a nerve agent leads
to constriction of pupils, profuse salivation, convulsions, and involuntary
urination and defecation, with the first symptoms appearing in seconds after
exposure. Death by asphyxiation or cardiac arrest may follow in minutes due to
the loss of the body's control over respiratory and other muscles. Some nerve
agents are readily vaporized or aerosolized, and the primary portal of entry
into the body is the respiratory system. Nerve agents can also be absorbed
through the skin, requiring that those likely to be subjected to such agents
wear a full body suit in addition to a respirator.
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Tuesday, 22 October 2019
Dry ice
Dry Ice is the solid form of
carbon dioxide. It is used primarily as a cooling agent. Its advantages include
lower temperature than that of water ice and not leaving any residue (other
than incidental frost from moisture in the atmosphere). It is useful for
preserving frozen foods where mechanical cooling is unavailable.
Dry ice sublimates at 194.65 K
(−78.5 °C; −109.3 °F), at Earth atmospheric pressures. This extreme cold makes
the solid dangerous to handle without protection due to burns caused by
freezing (frostbite). While generally not very toxic, the outgassing from it
can cause hypercapnia (abnormally elevated carbon dioxide levels in the blood)
due to buildup in confined locations.
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Acetic acid
Acetic acid systematically named
ethanoic acid /ˌɛθəˈnoʊɪk/, is a colourless liquid organic compound with the
chemical formula CH3COOH (also written as CH3CO2H or C2H4O2). When undiluted,
it is sometimes called glacial acetic acid. Vinegar is no less than 4% acetic
acid by volume, making acetic acid the main component of vinegar apart from water.
Acetic acid has a distinctive sour taste and pungent smell. In addition to
household vinegar, it is mainly produced as a precursor to polyvinyl acetate
and cellulose acetate. It is classified as a weak acid since it only partially
dissociates in solution, but concentrated acetic acid is corrosive and can
attack the skin.
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Monday, 21 October 2019
Titanium alloy
Titanium
alloys are metals that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical
elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at
extreme temperatures). They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion
resistance and the ability to withstand extreme temperatures. However, the high
cost of both raw materials and processing limit their use to military
applications, aircraft, spacecraft, bicycles, medical devices, jewelry, highly
stressed components such as connecting rods on expensive sports cars and some premium
sports equipment and consumer electronics.
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Iridium
Iridium is a chemical element
with the symbol Ir and atomic number 77. A very hard, brittle, silvery-white transition
metal of the platinum group, iridium is the second-densest metal (after osmium)
with a density of 22.56 g/cm3 as defined by experimental X-ray crystallography.
At room temperature and standard atmospheric pressure, iridium has a calculated
density 0.04 g/cm3 higher than osmium measured the same way. It is the most
corrosion-resistant metal, even at temperatures as high as 2000 °C. Although
only certain molten salts and halogens are corrosive to solid iridium, finely
divided iridium dust is much more reactive and can be flammable.
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Thursday, 17 October 2019
Isoelectric focusing
Isoelectric focusing (IEF), also
known as electrofocusing, is a technique for separating different molecules by
differences in their isoelectric point (pI). It is a type of zone
electrophoresis, usually performed on proteins in a gel, that takes advantage
of the fact that overall charge on the molecule of interest is a function of
the pH of its surroundings.
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Surface conductivity
Surface conductivity is an
additional conductivity of an electrolyte in the vicinity of the charged
interfaces. Surface and volume conductivity of liquids correspond to the
electrically driven motion of ions in an electric field. A layer of counter
ions of the opposite polarity to the surface charge exists close to the
interface. It is formed due to attraction of counter-ions by the surface
charges. This layer of higher ionic concentration is a part of the interfacial
double layer. The concentration of the ions in this layer is higher as compared
to the ionic strength of the liquid bulk. This leads to the higher electric
conductivity of this layer.
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Wednesday, 16 October 2019
Brine
Brine is a high-concentration
solution of salt in water. In different contexts, brine may refer to salt
solutions ranging from about 3.5% (a typical concentration of seawater, on the
lower end of solutions used for brining foods) up to about 26% (a typical
saturated solution, depending on temperature). Lower levels of concentration
are called by different names: fresh water, brackish water, and saline water.
Brine naturally occurs on the
Earth's surface (salt lakes), crust, and within brine pools on ocean bottom.
High-concentration brine lakes typically emerge due to evaporation of ground
saline water on high ambient temperatures. Brine is used for food processing
and cooking (pickling and brining), for de-icing of roads and other structures,
and in a number of technological processes. It is also a by-product of many
industrial processes, such as desalination, and may pose an environmental risk
due to its corrosive and toxic effects, so it requires wastewater treatment for
proper disposal or further utilization (fresh water recovery).
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Active ingredient
An active ingredient (AI) is the
ingredient in a pharmaceutical drug or pesticide that is biologically active.
The similar terms active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) and bulk active are
also used in medicine, and the term active substance may be used for natural
products. Some medication products may contain more than one active ingredient.
The traditional word for the API is pharmacon or pharmakon which originally
denoted a magical substance or drug.
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Tuesday, 15 October 2019
Gas chromatography
Gas chromatography (GC) is a
common type of chromatography used in analytical chemistry for separating and
analyzing compounds that can be vaporized without decomposition. Typical uses
of GC include testing the purity of a particular substance, or separating the
different components of a mixture (the relative amounts of such components can
also be determined). In some situations, GC may help in identifying a compound.
In preparative chromatography, GC can be used to prepare pure compounds from a
mixture.
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Toluene
Toluene is an aromatic
hydrocarbon. It is a colorless, water-insoluble liquid with the smell associated
with paint thinners. It is a mono-substituted benzene derivative, consisting of
a CH3 group attached to a phenyl group. As such, its IUPAC systematic name is
methylbenzene. Toluene is predominantly used as an industrial feedstock and a
solvent.
As the solvent in some types of
paint thinner, contact cement and model airplane glue, toluene is sometimes used
as a recreational inhalant and has the potential of causing severe neurological
harm.
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Monday, 14 October 2019
Conjugate acid
A conjugate acid, within the
Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, is a chemical compound formed by the reception
of a proton (H+) by a base—in other words, it is a base with a hydrogen ion
added to it. On the other hand, a conjugate base is what is left over after an
acid has donated a proton during a chemical reaction. Hence, a conjugate base
is a species formed by the removal of a proton from an acid. Because some acids
are capable of releasing multiple protons, the conjugate base of an acid may
itself be acidic.
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Chelation
Chelation is a type of bonding of
ions and molecules to metal ions. It involves the formation or presence of two
or more separate coordinate bonds between a polydentate (multiple bonded)
ligand and a single central atom. These ligands are called chelants, chelators,
chelating agents, or sequestering agents. They are usually organic compounds.
Chelation is useful in
applications such as providing nutritional supplements, in chelation therapy to
remove toxic metals from the body, as contrast agents in MRI scanning, in
manufacturing using homogeneous catalysts, in chemical water treatment to
assist in the removal of metals, and in fertilizers.
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Saturday, 12 October 2019
Hydrochloric acid
Hydrochloric
acid or muriatic acid is a colorless inorganic chemical system with the formula
H2O:HCl. Hydrochloric acid has a distinctive pungent smell. It is
classified as strongly acidic and can attack the skin over a wide composition
range, since the hydrogen chloride completely dissociates in aqueous solution.
Hydrochloric
acid is the simplest chlorine-based acid system containing water. It is a
solution of hydrogen chloride and water, and a variety of other chemical
species, including hydronium and chloride ions. It is a naturally-occurring
component of the gastric acid produced in the digestive systems of most animal
species, including humans.
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Electrophoresis
Electrophoresis is the motion of
dispersed particles relative to a fluid under the influence of a spatially
uniform electric field. Electrophoresis of positively charged particles
(cations) is sometimes called cataphoresis, while electrophoresis of negatively
charged particles (anions) is sometimes called anaphoresis.
The electrokinetic phenomenon of
electrophoresis was observed for the first time in 1807 by Russian professors
Peter Ivanovich Strakhov and Ferdinand Frederic Reuss at Moscow State
University, who noticed that the application of a constant electric field
caused clay particles dispersed in water to migrate. It is ultimately caused by
the presence of a charged interface between the particle surface and the
surrounding fluid. It is the basis for analytical techniques used in chemistry
for separating molecules by size, charge, or binding affinity.
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Friday, 11 October 2019
Urea
Urea, also
known as carbamide, is an organic compound with chemical formula CO(NH2)2. This
amide has two –NH2 groups joined by a carbonyl (C=O) functional group.
Urea serves
an important role in the metabolism of nitrogen-containing compounds by animals
and is the main nitrogen-containing substance in the urine of mammals. It is a
colorless, odorless solid, highly soluble in water, and practically non-toxic
(LD50 is 15 g/kg for rats). Dissolved in water, it is neither acidic nor
alkaline. The body uses it in many processes, most notably nitrogen excretion.
The liver forms it by combining two ammonia molecules (NH3) with a carbon
dioxide (CO2) molecule in the urea cycle. Urea is widely used in fertilizers as
a source of nitrogen (N) and is an important raw material for the chemical
industry.
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Peptide synthesis
In organic
chemistry, peptide synthesis is the production of peptides, compounds where
multiple amino acids are linked via amide bonds, also known as peptide bonds.
Peptides are chemically synthesized by the condensation reaction of the carboxyl
group of one amino acid to the amino group of another. Protecting group
strategies are usually necessary to prevent undesirable side reactions with the
various amino acid side chains. Chemical peptide synthesis most commonly starts
at the carboxyl end of the peptide (C-terminus), and proceeds toward the
amino-terminus (N-terminus). Protein
biosynthesis (long peptides) in living organisms occurs in the opposite
direction.
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Thursday, 10 October 2019
Sulfuric acid
Sulfuric acid (alternative
spelling sulphuric acid), also known as vitriol, is a mineral acid composed of
the elements sulfur, oxygen and hydrogen, with molecular formula H2SO4. It is a
colorless, odorless, and syrupy liquid that is soluble in water and is
synthesized in reactions that are highly exothermic.
Its corrosiveness can be mainly
ascribed to its strong acidic nature, and, if at a high concentration, its
dehydrating and oxidizing properties. It is also hygroscopic, readily absorbing
water vapor from the air.[5] Upon contact, sulfuric acid can cause severe
chemical burns and even secondary thermal burns; it is very dangerous even at
moderate concentrations.
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Nitroglycerin
Nitroglycerin (NG), also known as
nitroglycerine, trinitroglycerin (TNG), nitro, glyceryl trinitrate (GTN), or
1,2,3-trinitroxypropane, is a dense, colorless, oily, explosive liquid most
commonly produced by nitrating glycerol with white fuming nitric acid under
conditions appropriate to the formation of the nitric acid ester. Chemically,
the substance is an organic nitrate compound rather than a nitro compound, yet
the traditional name is often retained. Invented in 1847, nitroglycerin has
been used as an active ingredient in the manufacture of explosives, mostly
dynamite, and as such it is employed in the construction, demolition, and
mining industries. Since the 1880s, it has been used by the military as an
active ingredient, and a gelatinizer for nitrocellulose, in some solid
propellants, such as cordite and ballistite.
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Saturday, 5 October 2019
Mathematical chemistry
Mathematical chemistry is the
area of research engaged in novel applications of mathematics to chemistry; it
concerns itself principally with the mathematical modeling of chemical
phenomena. Mathematical chemistry has also sometimes been called computer
chemistry, but should not be confused with computational chemistry.
Major areas of research in
mathematical chemistry include chemical graph theory, which deals with topology
such as the mathematical study of isomerism and the development of topological
descriptors or indices which find application in quantitative
structure-property relationships; and chemical aspects of group theory, which
finds applications in stereochemistry and quantum chemistry.
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Wet chemistry
Wet chemistry is a form of
analytical chemistry that uses classical methods such as observation to analyze
materials. It is called wet chemistry since most analyzing is done in the
liquid phase. Wet chemistry is also called bench chemistry since many tests are
performed at lab benches.
Wet chemistry commonly uses
laboratory glassware such as beakers and graduated cylinders to prevent
materials from being contaminated or interfered with by unintended sources.
Gasoline, Bunsen burners, and crucibles may also be used to evaporate and
isolate substances in their dry forms. Wet chemistry is not performed with any
advanced instruments since most automatically scan substances. Although, simple
instruments such as scales are used to measure the weight of a substance before
and after a change occurs. Many high school and college laboratories teach
students basic wet chemistry methods.
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Friday, 4 October 2019
Electrolysed water
Electrolysed water (electrolyzed
water, EOW, ECA, electrolyzed oxidizing water, electro-activated water or
electro-chemically activated water solution) is produced by the electrolysis of
ordinary tap water containing dissolved sodium chloride. The electrolysis of
such salt solutions produces a solution of hypochlorous acid and sodium
hydroxide. The resulting water is a known cleanser and disinfectant /
sanitizer.
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Chromatography
Chromatography is a laboratory
technique for the separation of a mixture. The mixture is dissolved in a fluid
called the mobile phase, which carries it through a structure holding another
material called the stationary phase. The various constituents of the mixture
travel at different speeds, causing them to separate. The separation is based
on differential partitioning between the mobile and stationary phases. Subtle
differences in a compound's partition coefficient result in differential
retention on the stationary phase and thus affect the separation.
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Thursday, 3 October 2019
Actinide chemistry
Actinide chemistry (or actinoid
chemistry) is one of the main branches of nuclear chemistry that investigates
the processes and molecular systems of the actinides. The actinides derive
their name from the group 3 element actinium. The informal chemical symbol An
is used in general discussions of actinide chemistry to refer to any actinide.
All but one of the actinides are f-block elements, corresponding to the filling
of the 5f electron shell; lawrencium, a d-block element, is also generally
considered an actinide. In comparison with the lanthanides, also mostly f-block
elements, the actinides show much more variable valence. The actinide series
encompasses the 15 metallic chemical elements with atomic numbers from 89 to
103, actinium through lawrencium.
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Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a
measure of its resistance to deformation at a given rate. For liquids, it
corresponds to the informal concept of "thickness": for example,
syrup has a higher viscosity than water.
Viscosity can be conceptualized
as quantifying the frictional force that arises between adjacent layers of
fluid that are in relative motion. For instance, when a fluid is forced through
a tube, it flows more quickly near the tube's axis than near its walls. In such
a case, experiments show that some stress (such as a pressure difference
between the two ends of the tube) is needed to sustain the flow through the
tube. This is because a force is required to overcome the friction between the
layers of the fluid which are in relative motion: the strength of this force is
proportional to the viscosity.
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Wednesday, 2 October 2019
Reactive material
In the U.S. military, reactive
materials (RM) are a new class of materials currently being investigated by the
Office of Naval Research and others as a means to increase the lethality of
direct-hit or fragmentation warheads. Reactive materials are similar to
insensitive high explosives, but are usually thermite-like pyrotechnic
compositions of two or more nonexplosive solid materials, which stay inert and
do not react with each other until subjected to a sufficiently strong
mechanical, electrical or laser stimulus, after which they undergo fast burning
or explosion with release of high amount of chemical energy in addition to
their kinetic energy. Fragments or projectiles made of such materials have
therefore greater damaging effect than inert ones, with expected lethality
increase up to 500%.
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Polyatomic ion
A polyatomic ion, also known as a
molecular ion, is a charged chemical species (ion) composed of two or more
atoms covalently bonded or of a metal complex that can be considered to be
acting as a single unit. The prefix poly- means "many," in Greek, but
even ions of two atoms are commonly referred to as polyatomic. In older
literature, a polyatomic ion is also referred to as a radical, and less
commonly, as a radical group. In contemporary usage, the term radical refers to
free radicals that are (not necessarily charged) species with an unpaired
electron.
An example of a polyatomic ion is
the hydroxide ion; consisting of one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom,
hydroxide has a charge of −1. Its chemical formula is OH−
An ammonium ion consists of one
nitrogen atom and four hydrogen atoms: it has a charge of +1, and its chemical
formula is NH+
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Tuesday, 1 October 2019
Gluconeogenesis
Gluconeogenesis (GNG) is a
metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from certain
non-carbohydrate carbon substrates. From breakdown of proteins, these
substrates include glucogenic amino acids (although not ketogenic amino acids);
from breakdown of lipids (such as triglycerides), they include glycerol,
odd-chain fatty acids (although not even-chain fatty acids, see below); and
from other steps in metabolism they include pyruvate and lactate.
Gluconeogenesis is one of several
main mechanisms used by humans and many other animals to maintain blood glucose
levels, avoiding low levels (hypoglycemia). Other means include the degradation
of glycogen (glycogenolysis) and fatty acid catabolism.
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Calvin cycle
The Calvin cycle,
light-independent reactions, bio synthetic phase, dark reactions, or photosynthetic
carbon reduction (PCR) cycle of photosynthesis are the chemical reactions that
convert carbon dioxide and other compounds into glucose. These reactions occur
in the stroma, the fluid-filled area of a chloroplast outside the thylakoid
membranes. These reactions take the products (ATP and NADPH) of light-dependent
reactions and perform further chemical processes on them. There are three
phases to the light-independent reactions, collectively called the Calvin
cycle: carbon fixation, reduction reactions, and ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate
(RuBP) regeneration.
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Monday, 30 September 2019
Sodium thiosulfate
Sodium thiosulfate (sodium
thiosulphate) is an inorganic compound with the formula Na2S2O3.xH2O. Typically
it is available as the white or colorless pentahydrate, Na2S2O3·5H2O. The solid
is an efflorescent (loses water readily) crystalline substance that dissolves
well in water. It is also often called sodium hyposulfite or hypo.
Sodium thiosulfate is used in
gold mining, water treatment, analytic chemistry, the development of
silver-based photographic film and prints, and medicine. The medical uses of
sodium thiosulfate include treatment of cyanide poisoning and pityriasis. It is
on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.
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Graphite
Graphite archaically referred to
as plumbago, is a crystalline form of the element carbon with its atoms
arranged in a hexagonal structure. It occurs naturally in this form and is the
most stable form of carbon under standard conditions. Under high pressures and
temperatures it converts to diamond. Graphite is used in pencils and
lubricants. Its high conductivity makes it useful in electronic products such
as electrodes, batteries, and solar panels.
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Friday, 27 September 2019
Buffer solution
A buffer solution (more
precisely, pH buffer or hydrogen ion buffer) is an aqueous solution consisting
of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or vice versa. Its pH
changes very little when a small amount of strong acid or base is added to it.
Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a nearly constant value
in a wide variety of chemical applications. In nature, there are many systems
that use buffering for pH regulation. For example, the bicarbonate buffering
system is used to regulate the pH of blood.
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Sulfur mustard
Sulfur mustard, commonly known as
mustard gas, is the prototypical substance of the sulfur-based family of
cytotoxic and vesicant chemical warfare agents, which can form large blisters
on exposed skin and in the lungs. They have a long history of use as a
blister-agent in warfare and, along with organoarsenic compounds such as
Lewisite, are the most well-studied of such agents. Related chemical compounds
with similar chemical structure and similar properties form a class of
compounds known collectively as sulfur mustards or mustard agents. Pure sulfur
mustards are colorless, viscous liquids at room temperature. When used in
impure form, such as warfare agents, they are usually yellow-brown and have an
odor resembling mustard plants, garlic, or horseradish, hence the name. The
common name of "mustard gas" is considered inaccurate because the
sulfur mustard is not actually vaporized, but dispersed as a fine mist of
liquid droplets. Sulfur mustard was originally assigned the name LOST, after
the scientists Wilhelm Lommel and Wilhelm Steinkopf, who developed a method of
large-scale production for the Imperial German Army in 1916.
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Thursday, 26 September 2019
Aromatic hydrocarbon
An aromatic hydrocarbon or arene
(or sometimes aryl hydrocarbon) is a hydrocarbon with sigma bonds and
delocalized pi electrons between carbon atoms forming a circle. In contrast,
aliphatic hydrocarbons lack this delocalization. The term "aromatic"
was assigned before the physical mechanism determining aromaticity was
discovered; the term was coined as such simply because many of the compounds
have a sweet or pleasant odour. The configuration of six carbon atoms in
aromatic compounds is known as a benzene ring, after the simplest possible such
hydrocarbon, benzene. Aromatic hydrocarbons can be monocyclic (MAH) or
polycyclic (PAH).
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Graphene
Graphene is an allotrope of
carbon in the form of a single layer of atoms in a two-dimensional hexagonal
lattice in which one atom forms each vertex. It is the basic structural element
of other allotropes, including graphite, charcoal, carbon nanotubes and
fullerenes. It can also be considered as an indefinitely large aromatic
molecule, the ultimate case of the family of flat polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons.
Graphene has a unique set of
properties which set it apart from other materials. In proportion to its
thickness, it is about 100 times stronger than the strongest steel. It conducts
heat and electricity very efficiently and is nearly transparent. Graphene also
shows a large and nonlinear diamagnetism, even greater than graphite, and can
be levitated by Nd-Fe-B magnets. Researchers have identified the bipolar
transistor effect, ballistic transport of charges and large quantum
oscillations in the material.
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